Finally this analysis also contributes to our knowledge of t

Finally, this analysis also contributes to our knowledge of the determinants of limited physical functioning at older ages. The prevalence of functional limitations is increasing in many countries simply because of rapid pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase inhibitor aging. In some countries, such as the U.S. and Mexico, functional limitations may also become more prevalent because of the dramatic growth in obesity and increased sedentariness during the past several decades (Himes & Reynolds, 2012; Rtveladze et al., 2014; Vincent, Vincent, & Lamb, 2010). Thus, old age functional limitations and other forms of disability are a key issue in public health policy and more research on ways to reduce old age functional limitations is essential (Chatterji, Byles, Cutler, Seeman, & Verdes, 2015; Jette & Field, 2007; Martin & Schoeni, 2014).
Work conditions and health Workers with less education and from lower income backgrounds are more likely to have jobs that include heavy physical demands (e.g., carrying or moving heavy loads), repetitive movements, tiring or painful positions, ergonomic strain, extensive vibrations, noise, and heat, exposure to toxic or hazardous substances, and/or physical dangers. For example, blue collar jobs even in higher income countries often still involve exposure to heavy physical demands (Clougherty et al., 2010). Physical work conditions are typically worse in middle and lower income countries that have more limited occupational health and safety regulation and a higher proportion of workers in the unregulated informal sector (Haro-García, Juárez-Pérez, Sánchez-Román, & Aguilar-Madrid, 2014; Verbeek & Ivanov, 2013). In Mexico, for example, Sánchez-Román, Juárez-Pérez, Madrid, Haro-Gárcia, & Borja-Aburto (2006) report that high levels of underemployment (e.g., 39% in 2004) have favored informal and unregulated work. A number of studies in higher income countries have shown that physically demanding work is associated with poorer health and functional ability in later adulthood. For example, in a U.S. national sample of individuals aged 65 or older, those whose occupation involved high levels of physical activity were less likely to be able to perform activities of daily living (ADLs) (Missikpode, Michael, & Wallace, 2016). Studies in other countries report similar results for older adult ADLs, physical functioning, and/or disability (da Costa & Vieira, 2010; Lahelma et al., 2012; Li, Wu, & Wen, 2000; Møller et al., 2015; Polvinen, Gould, Lahelma, & Martikainen, 2013; Russo et al., 2006). However, in a national Swedish sample, Rydwik et al. (2013) found little association between midlife occupation and later adult ADL or IADL disability. A number of recent studies, mostly from European countries, have assessed the contributions of physical work conditions to socioeconomic inequalities in health. Using nationally representative survey and register data in Finland, Polvinen et al. (2013) found Quick-stop dna mutant socioeconomic inequalities in disability retirement – and particularly for musculoskeletal conditions – could be accounted for, in part, by differences in physical work requirements. Several studies based on the GAZEL cohort data in France found that physical work conditions contributed to socioeconomic inequalities in quality of life after retirement (Platts et al., 2013), back pain (Plouvier, Leclerc, Chastang, Bonenfant, & Goldberg, 2009), and sick days (Melchior et al., 2005). In the Netherlands, Monden (2005) showed that adverse physical work conditions, particularly over a lifetime, accounted for a significant portion of educational inequality in self-reported health (SRH) for men, but not for women. The sex difference appears to be due to educational differences in time out of the workforce (e.g., maternity and family leave) for women and limited educational variation in the physical work conditions to which women are exposed. Results of a study by Goh et al. (2015) in the United States also suggest that physical work conditions may contribute to socioeconomic inequalities in premature mortality.